General history of architecture. General history of architecture The most ancient architecture

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Ancient Egyptian order

The development of the Egyptian order dates back to the era of the Ancient and Middle Kingdoms, when geometrically correct columns prevailed. In the era of the New and Late Kingdoms, columns of the second group prevailed, based on imitation of the forms of the plant world: papyrus-shaped with open or closed buds - the main type of columns of the New Kingdom, lotus-shaped, palm-shaped, as well as a column with a complex composite capital, which appeared in the era of the Late Kingdom. The height of the columns was from 3.75 to 7 times the largest diameter. The entablature of the Egyptian order consisted of an architrave beam and an external rectangular slab. The proportions of the Egyptian column were relatively heavy and massive.

Karnak. Temple of Amun

The huge Theban temple ensemble at Karnak, begun in the Middle Kingdom, was the supreme sanctuary of Egypt. It served as a stone archive of Egyptian history. On its walls and columns, dedicatory inscriptions of kings, hymns to the gods, images of various moments of the ritual, as well as information about the historical events of the New Kingdom have been preserved. The Egyptian pharaohs, seeing their support in the priests of the temple of Amun at Karnak, strongly supported the Theban priesthood. Seti I continued the gigantic hypostyle hall of the Karnak temple, begun by Haramkheb, the last pharaoh of the 19th dynasty, already completed by Ramses II (end of the 13th century BC). The hall is 103 m wide and 32 m deep, its area is more than 5000 m. The overlap was supported by 16 rows of columns. The central nave had six rows of columns 20.4 m high.

Karnak. Khonsu Temple

Khonsu Temple in Karnak was built under Ramses III. This is a typical New Kingdom temple. All the basic aesthetic principles of architecture of this time were manifested in it most vividly and clearly. The temple consisted of an alley of sphinxes, a pylon with images - outside, and inside there were halls: a hypostyle, a courtyard with columns and a sanctuary. The sacred boat Khonsu was located in the sanctuary. The entire temple from the beginning of the avenue of the sphinxes to the central door of the sanctuary is built according to the principle of absolute symmetry.

Edfu. Temple of Horus

The construction of the temple began in 237 BC. Like the temples of the New Kingdom, all the premises of the Temple of Horus - the pylon, the open courtyard, the entrance hall, the hypostyle hall, the sanctuary and the chapels - are arranged symmetrically along one axis. The Temple of Horus was built for about 200 years. The pylon of the Horus temple is very massive: its height is 35 m, with a width of 76 m. The pylon of the temple consists of two independent towers passing over the entrance.

The Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the most ancient and powerful civilizations. She gave the world a unique culture, which to this day never ceases to amaze and delight. Of particular interest is architecture Ancient Rome, which was able to combine the best features of the ancient Greek and Etruscan heritage.

Features of the architecture of Ancient Rome

The architecture of Ancient Rome, as a distinctive art form, was formed during the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. The ancient structures only miraculously managed to survive to this day, despite numerous wars and natural disasters. Architectural monuments of ancient Roman architecture still conquer with their majesty and monumentality.

And this is not surprising, because it was the ancient Romans who laid the foundation for a new era in world architecture, starting the construction of impressive public buildings designed for a large number of people. These include theaters and amphitheaters, markets, libraries, baths, basilicas, temples.

Fig. 1. Therma in Ancient Rome.

When building their state, the ancient Romans used the achievements of Greek and Etruscan masters. And if the ancient Greeks in architecture were subtle connoisseurs of beauty, the Romans showed themselves to be practical and far-sighted builders. Having borrowed useful ideas, they were able to create a unique architecture, which, with its truly colossal scope, was able to embody in stone all the power of a great empire, become its symbol for many centuries.

The most famous monument ancient Roman architecture is the Colosseum. It is a classic amphitheater of impressive size and used for entertainment events. On its arena, gladiator fights, fierce battles of large predators and other entertainments took place. In the III century A.D. e. The Colosseum was severely damaged in a massive fire. But it was restored and since then has attracted tourists from all over the world.

Fig. 2. Colosseum.

Achievements of the architecture of Ancient Rome

In the ancient world, the architecture of Rome was unmatched. The huge scale of construction, the variety of types of structures and compositional forms, amazing engineering findings were able to exalt Ancient Rome, strengthen its power and glory.

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The most significant achievements of that period of history include:

• Perhaps the most important invention of ancient Roman architects was concrete. The new building material consisted of water, lime and rubble. At first, it was used in the construction of roads, but thanks to its amazing strength and refractory qualities, concrete took a leading place in the construction of architectural structures.

By pouring concrete into the space between two brick walls, the architects achieved incredible stability of the structure, and thus could build multi-storey buildings. Outside, they were covered with granite or marble, richly decorated with sculptural decor.

• Aqueducts - arched bridges - are one of the important achievements of Roman architects. Subsequently, their design served as a model for the construction of railway and other transport bridges.

Fig. 3. Ancient Roman aqueducts.

• The solidity of ancient Roman architecture became possible due to the use in the construction of all kinds of arches, supports and curved floors. The facades of the amphitheaters and bridges were fortified by rows of arcades, a characteristic feature of the architecture of Ancient Rome.
• Vaulted structures also became a major invention. By joining the arches together, the Roman architects were able to strengthen the structure of the ceiling and thus obtain a vault. By arranging a series of arches in the form of a closed circle, they created a dome. In the future, these innovations served as the basis for the development of many architectural trends.

Ionic order.The Doric order took shape in the Peloponnese and in the Greek colonies in Sicily and in southern Italy... The Ionian order was most widespread in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea. The trunk of the Ionic column was originally thinner than the trunk of the Doric column, which confirms its origin from the wooden structure. The Ionian Column has a base. The flutes are cut deeper into the trunk. Volutes protrude from both sides of the Ionic capital, resembling a partially unfolded papyrus scroll, depicted on the front side. In such a capital, the front and back sides differ from the side ones, which could not but cause certain difficulties in solving the corners of the structure. In the corner capital, the Greeks placed volutes not on opposite, but on adjacent sides. As a result, the angular volute had an angular protrusion of forty-five degrees. The Ionian architrave consists of three narrow horizontal stripes, which are often decorated with a thin, low relief, and is not divided into triglyphs and metopes. The Ionian order is more graceful than the Doric one and does not produce the impression of power characteristic of the latter. The Greeks considered the Doric order to be masculine, and the Ionic order as feminine.

Both branches of development, Doric and Ionic, merged in Athens in the 5th century. BC. Athens was located on the border between the Dorian and Ionian lands, and already at the end of the 6th century. artists from both regions worked in the city. After the victory won by the Athenians in the Greco-Persian wars in 480 BC, under the leadership of Pericles, this city-state reached its zenith. Pericles sought to ensure the cultural and artistic leadership of Athens in the Greek world, and for this he embarked on one of the most ambitious building programs in human history, especially when you consider that the then population of Athens, including slaves, numbered no more than 300,000 people.

Acropolis. The core of the building program was the Acropolis, a fortified rock ledge. During the Greco-Persian wars, the Persians destroyed the ancient temples on the rock. In 447 BC. Iktin and Kallikrates began to erect the Parthenon on this site, which at that time was unusually large (3068 m) and possessed amazing integrity, compactness and clarity. It housed a twenty-meter statue of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin), the patroness of the city, made of gold and ivory. The proportions of the columns and the plan, the subtlety of drawing details and the nuances of the architectural solution - all testify to the desire of architects to achieve harmony. Speaking of nuances, we mean, for example, a slight tilt of the columns inward, imparting a barely perceptible pyramidal shape to the silhouette and creating a feeling of its almost organic growth; subtle displacement of the extreme columns to the corners, giving them additional strength and stability; finally, a slight rise of all contours from the edges of the structure to the center.

In another temple, the Erechtheion, two deities were worshiped at once: the ancient god Ereheia, who died, according to legend, from the lightning of Zeus, and Athena. Associated with this is the unusual shape of his plan, which is a prostyle with one Ionic portico on the south and a second, larger one on the north. On the western side of the southern wall is a portico of the caryatids, in which the entablature is supported by six statues of girls, placed instead of the usual columns. Irregularity of the plan, asymmetry of the volume of the temple are not typical for Greek architecture.

The Propylaea, the monumental entrance to the Acropolis, created by Mnesicles and decorated with Doric porticoes with small pavilions on the sides, remained unfinished. Above the ledge of the fortress wall, in front of the Propylaea and somewhat to the right of them, there is a small amphiprostyle Ionic temple of Nika Apteros (Wingless Victory).

Corinthian order. By the end of the 5th century. BC. a third architectural order, the Corinthian one, arose. Its columns are as graceful as the columns of the Ionic order, and the entablature is more magnificent. The Corinthian capital resembles an inverted bell, composed of two rows of acanthus leaves with spiral vine tendrils at the corners. Apparently, this order was first applied in the temple of Apollo at Bassa. In an improved form, we meet him in the round temple at Epidaurus; at the very end of the 4th century. BC. the Corinthian order was used to create the monument to Lysicrates in Athens.

Dwelling. About a Greek house of the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. little is known. We know that it had a very modest size and simple design. Several rooms where people cooked, dined, washed and slept surrounded a courtyard through which the rooms were illuminated. In the front rooms, the floors were often decorated with mosaics; utensils, especially ceramic vases, were distinguished by their sophistication of forms and subtlety of painting.

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

Roman genius was most evident in the organization of space. For this, the Romans turned to new structures - an arch and a vault. The Egyptians and Greeks also used arched structures, but they did so mainly in civil and underground structures. In Mesopotamia, vaulted buildings were quite common, but the fragility of the sun-dried bricks prevented the increase in the size of the vaults. In Rome, huge vaults were erected from stone or, more often, from concrete; volcanic ash - pozzolana served as a binder. Concrete was poured into wooden molds - formwork. When the concrete hardened, the molds were removed, but since their creation required a lot of money and time, the optimal solution was to use the same simple structures. If an arch or vault was erected in stone, it was necessary to erect temporary wooden structures-circles, supporting the vault until the completion of the work. The use of standard forms here turned out to be more economical.

It was in civil engineering that the Romans achieved the highest results. Roman roads penetrated the entire territory of the vast empire and were so good that they served for many centuries after the fall of Rome. The cities of the empire were supplied with water through a system of aqueducts. They brought water from distant sources to the cities; the pipes passed through rows of long arcades that provided an even, gentle slope of the water conduit. And now the stone arches of the Aqua Claudia aqueduct rise in the fields near Rome. In Segovia, Spain, a deep canyon is crossed by two high arcades, one on top of the other, and in southern France, the Pont du Gard triple arcade, built over a river stream, flows from the mountains to the city of Nîmes.

Temples. When erecting temples, the Romans used, with some changes, the schemes developed by the Greeks and Etruscans. The architectural typology of the Temple of Jupiter Capitoline in Rome with the whole and the roof hanging over it, apparently, dates back to the buildings of the Etruscans. To the three Greek orders, the Romans added Tuscan, which is a somewhat simplified version of the Doric, and composite, in which features of the Ionic and Corinthian orders are combined. The Romans also made some changes to the orders themselves, for example, Roman Doric columns had bases. In general, Roman rectangular temples are similar to the Greek ones. So, the temple of Fortune Virilis is a typical prostyle, and the so-called. Maison Carré in Nimes is a pseudo-peripter (the cella is in the entire width of the temple, on the side facades the Corinthian semi-columns are set close to the wall). Like many other Roman temples, Maison Carré is raised on a platform, or podium, it can be entered by climbing the stairs, only from the side of one of the front facades.

The Pantheon has a completely different look. This round temple is crowned with a hemispherical dome with a diameter of 43 m. Seven niches are cut into the massive walls of the cylinder from the inside, and a single doorway leads inside. The temple is arranged in such a way that if you mentally continue the line of the dome down, you get a ball touching the floor of the temple at its lowest point. Light enters the building through a nine-meter-wide hole in the top of the Pantheon's dome. The caisson recesses cover the inner surface of the dome, and the rhythmic repetition of their rows emphasizes the logic of the concrete structure. The floor and walls are paved with colored marble slabs. The complete take-off of the dome can be seen only in the interior, while only its very top is visible from the outside: the lower part is recessed into the thickness of the wall cylinder to absorb the lateral expansion. Adjacent to the cylinder is the Corinthian portico of the entrance.

Forum constructions. Temples were less important in Roman architecture than in Greek. The daily activities of the Romans took place in the governmental, judicial and commercial buildings of the forums. Temples and basilicas have been built along the sacred road of the Roman forum for centuries. Trajan's Forum could be accessed through a triumphal arch, behind which opened up a vast rectangular courtyard surrounded by a colonnade. In the middle of each of the long sides of the square, behind the colonnade, semicircular exedra rooms were arranged. The far side of the courtyard was closed by the Ulpia Basilica, in this rectangular building with exedra at both ends were the stock exchange and court. After passing through the basilica, one could find yourself in the next courtyard, where the colossal Trajan's column (the only part of the entire complex that has survived to this day) and the Divine Trajan's temple are installed. Semicircular end - the apse of the temple is the end point of movement along the main axis of the forum. Before us is a sample of a purely Roman layout with a clearly defined system of axes.

The basilicas were covered with a rafter wooden roof or vault. There were rafters at the Ulpia Basilica and at the Julius Basilica, built by Caesar in the Roman Forum. The basilicas had a rectangular plan, their inner space was divided by colonnades into long naves. In them, the servants of the law met with their clients, and merchants made deals. An example of a vaulted basilica is the Basilica of Maxentius in the Roman Forum. Its vast interior space was covered with three cross vaults. The cross vault has a number of structural advantages over other floor systems - it easily fits with other cross or cylindrical vaults; in contrast to the cylindrical vault, which rests on the side walls, it only needs four corner supports; if a building covered with a cylindrical vault can only receive light from the end sides, then a building with a cross vault allows lighting from any or even all four sides. In the Basilica of Maxentius, the cross vaults are raised high above the side aisles, covered with cylindrical vaults. The Basilica is the largest structure in the Forum, but in its current state it is only a third of the original structure.

Theaters and amphitheaters. Among other forms of Roman architecture, amphitheaters and theaters occupied an important place. Nearly 50,000 spectators could gather at the Flavius \u200b\u200bamphitheater in the Colosseum, built near the forum, to watch the gladiators fight. Rows of spectator seats rose in steps from the oval arena, supported by a complex system of vaults; the facade, which consists of three rows of arcades, is decorated with order elements: additional columns and pilasters, the vertical rows of which are interspersed with the horizontal entablatures

Thermes. The abundance of water delivered to Roman cities by aqueducts contributed to the construction of luxurious baths (thermae). In the baths we met with friends, discussed the latest military or political news, and had a good time. The thermal baths of Caracalla had hot, warm and cold baths, dressing rooms, rooms for exercise and relaxation. The plan of the terms is also based on a system of intersecting axes, diverging from the main volume to the auxiliary buildings and the inner garden. The central hall is covered with cross vaults.

Triumphal arches. Upon the return of the emperors from the campaigns of conquest, triumphal arches were erected to commemorate their victories. The one-span Arch of Titus stands on the Via Sacra at the entrance to the Roman Forum. Its reliefs depict the conquest of Jerusalem. Arch of Constantine, the central span of which is flanked by smaller arched openings, is located away from the forum. Its columns, placed on pedestals, create a rhythmic accent, but do not carry any real load.

Residential buildings. In Pompeii, buried under a layer of ash for many centuries, many antique residential buildings have survived. In more modest houses, the lobby led to the atrium – a courtyard, in the middle of which was a small pool for collecting rainwater. The courtyard porticos led to the living quarters and the dining room. Opposite the entrance, behind the atrium, was the tablinum, the heart of the house, where the owner received close friends and where the deities of the hearth - laras and penates - were worshiped. In more luxurious houses, they arranged another courtyard, surrounded by a colonnade, and a garden. In the house of the Vettii, services and offices were located around the atrium, where the owner met with clients, and around the peristyle courtyard, which was more remote from the entrance and hidden from prying eyes, the life of the family took place. The architecture of such a house is focused on the interior space. Outside, only the facade was decorated. Sometimes several small windows were made in it, but often there were none at all, since enough light entered the house through the atrium and peristyle courtyard. Sculpture, marble reliefs and frescoes adorned the elegant chambers, and fountains were often built in the courtyard.

Late Roman architecture. Pushing the boundaries of the conquered lands, conquering Gaul, Spain, Britain, Greece, North Africa and the countries of the Middle East, the Roman legions carried with them the achievements of Roman civilization, including architectural forms characteristic of Rome. Aqueducts and temples, baths and theaters have spread throughout the Mediterranean world. The era of the domination of Rome lasted for several centuries, but already in the 3rd century. the decline of the empire began. The character of Roman architecture also changed. Diocletian's Palace in Split on the shores of the Adriatic Sea resembles a Roman military camp in its structure. It was surrounded on three sides by a defensive wall with towers, and the rectangle of its plan was divided into four parts by streets intersecting at right angles. In the architecture of Diocletian's palace, immutable canons are violated. The columns no longer support the horizontal architrave, but the arch. Often the columns generally play a purely decorative role: they are placed on a console protruding from the wall and are no longer a power link of the structure. Many traditional details have been replaced by new, more loosely interpreted elements of the classical order. This kind of transformation marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of European architecture.

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE

In 313, the emperor Constantine declared Christianity the state religion, and the architects were faced with the task of creating a church building.

Basilicas. Of all types of structures in Roman architecture, Christians chose the basilica building. Usually, the early Christian basilica included an atrium, in the center of which was a baptismal font. The portico, located on the opposite side of the entrance to the atrium, led to the narthex, or vestibule, which preceded the inner space of the church itself - naos. The catechumens were in the narthex during the service - people preparing to be baptized. The naos was divided by longitudinal rows of columns into an odd number of naves - usually 3 or 5. The central nave was, as a rule, higher and more spacious than the side ones. The flock gathered in the nave space. At the eastern end of the main nave, on a dais, there was a priestly pulpit from which sermons were delivered. Behind Solea was a semicircular apse, in the center of which an altar was installed - the holy of holies of a Christian church.

The basilica was notable for its extreme simplicity of form. The first church buildings had wooden roof trusses. Early Christian communities were poor and had to be content with the cheapest materials in church building. Often, during the construction of temples, fragments of old buildings were used, so the colonnade could be composed of columns topped with different capitals. The marble floor slabs formed an ornamental pattern. Mosaics glittered in the apse and on the walls of the church. When there was not enough money for the mosaic decoration, the temple was painted with frescoes. In contrast to the richly decorated interior, the appearance of the church buildings was very modest, which distinguished them from pagan temples.

In the early basilicas of the 4th – 5th centuries. the entrance was on the east side of the building and the apse on the west. During the service, the priest, standing in front of the altar, looked to the east, facing the flock. Later, the nature of the service changed, the priest and the flock together turned their gaze to the east, and the pastor found himself standing with his back to the audience. In the Roman church of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, the original apse was on the west side, later a new church was built, the apse of which was tangential to the old one; subsequently both apses were dismantled, and the old church, which turned out to be on the east side, became a side-chapel of the new one. In the Middle Ages, it became a tradition to arrange an entrance from the west, and the holy of holies - an altar - from the east.

In addition to the basilica ones, Christians also erected centric buildings. In this case, the altar was placed in the central part of a cruciform or round hall in the plan, surrounded by a gallery. An example of such a building is the Roman church of San Stefano Rotonda. Like the first basilicas, it is covered with a simple wooden roof. However, more organic for the centric composition is the domed ceiling, which was realized in the mausoleum of Santa Costanza in Rome; the gallery of this building is covered with a cylindrical vault.

Both architectural types are common in the eastern Mediterranean, Syria and Palestine. The Temple of Simeon the Stylite in Kalaat-Seman was a complex of four basilicas located around an octagonal central courtyard where the famous pillar stood. In Tourmanin, the facade of the basilica was flanked by towers. The lack of wood in these places forced the builders to construct ceilings of stone slabs laid on top of the structure of arches placed across the main nave.

Architecture of Byzantium. Until about the end of the 8th century. the eastern part of the Roman Empire, with its capital in Constantinople, remained the main guardian of the traditions of European civilization.

The main problem of early Byzantine architecture is usually formulated as follows: how to put the dome of the Pantheon on the Basilica of Maxentius? To cover the vast space with a dome, the Byzantines invented the so-called. sail . The sails are triangular fragments of a spherical surface, the lower corner of which continues at the bottom with a support pillar, and the upper arc forms part of the circle that lay at the base of the dome. This invention, known since late antiquity, made it possible to build a basilica with one or more domes. Church of St. St. Sophia of Constantinople was built in 532-537 by the architects Anthimia of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus. The nave of the temple is covered with a dome on sails, to which half-domes adjoin from the east and west; from the southern and northern sides, the dome rests on wide arches, part of the load is transferred to the powerful buttresses attached to the wall from the outside. Side aisles with galleries surround the central hall. As in early Christian basilicas, the splendor of the interior here contrasts sharply with the modesty of the outer walls.

The customer of the church of St. Sophia and several church buildings in Ravenna was Emperor Justinian. In the Church of Ravenna San Vitale, the dome on sails rests on eight pillars. The central volume of the temple, which has an octahedron in plan, is surrounded by vaulted galleries.

About a century and a half after the heyday under Justinian, the Eastern Church turned out to be the arena of iconoclastic disputes: the ban on the creation of sacred images caused great damage to Byzantine art: new icons were not painted, and old ones were destroyed. In architecture, the situation was better (the prohibitions did not affect it), but the general situation did not contribute to the scale of construction activities. In the 9th - first half of the 11th centuries. under the Macedonian dynasty, there is an artistic revival. The architectural type of the cross-domed temple has become widespread and, in particular, such a variety as a temple on four columns (or a temple of the type of an inscribed cross). The central dome is erected at the intersection of the arms of the cross, covered with cylindrical vaults; small cross vaults are usually arranged above the corners of the square. Such buildings were usually small in size. An example of a church building of this type is given by the Temple of the Little Metropolis in Athens (12th century). The central dome on a drum is raised high above the massif of the structure, and ribbons of reliefs and sculptural inserts enliven the surface of the outer walls.

During this era, the Cathedral of San Marco was built in Venice. His plan is the so-called. Greek cross (four-pointed, equilateral). Such was the composition of the church of St. Apostles in Constantinople. The interior and facade of San Marco are richly decorated with marble inlay and mosaics.

The Middle Byzantine period of history and culture ends with the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders - participants of the 4th crusade - in 1204. After this shock, Byzantium was not able to fully recover its strength, but in the 13-14 centuries. many churches were built in the Balkans. They are usually small in size and with small differences in plan, they usually have a dome raised on a high drum, so that the building looks like a turret. In 1453 Constantinople was captured by the Turks and its thousand-year history ended. For a thousand years, the influence of Byzantine culture spread over a vast territory, and 1453 did not become the moment of its death; a new period in the history of the existence of Byzantine culture began, called post-Byzantine, when artistic impulses, the source of which was once the art of Constantinople, developed in the Balkans, Cyprus, and Russia.